A paragraph can be short, or it can be long. This depends on the length of each story and its segments.

Expository Paragraph

An expository paragraph is a connected series of sentences that presents and develops a narrow topic by material that is orderly in plan and specific in detail.

Topic Sentence

A topic sentence is an abstract statement of the unity of the paragraph. It always presents the subject of the paragraph and an attitude toward the subject. Usually though, not always the topic sentence come at the beginning of the paragraph.

Simple (a sapling with no branches).
Complex (a sapling with at least one branch).
Compound (two or more things or saplings with no branches).

Simple (the dogs bark).
Complex (the dogs bark when the birds sing).
Compound (the dogs bark and the birds sing).

Use of Commas  (,)

Use a comma between main clauses joined by “and,” “but,” “for,” “or,” “nor,” and some of the time, “yet,” and “so.”

However, beware of the compound predicate, “The dogs bark and run around in circles.” Use a comma after a dependent clause that preceeds a main clause. Use a comma after a dependent element that preceeds a main clause.

Use a comma or commas to separate members of a series.

a) A, B, and C.
b) A, B. C, D, E, and F.

Use a comma to set off parenthical elements. But, beware of the restrictive element, which is not parenthical.

a) The children, who are playing, hardly hear the dogs.

Note – Use a comma to separate coordinates for adjectives modifying the same noun.

Caution - Be sure adjectives are coordinate tested. They are if you could replace the comma with “end.”

Use of Semicolon  (

Use a semicolon between main clauses NOT joined by “and,” “but,” “for,” “or,” and “nor.”

a) The dogs bark; the birds sing.

Use a semicolon between main clauses joined by “and,” “but,” “for,” “or,” and “nor.” if the clause contains many commas.

Use a colon to introduce a short development of a generation.

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More – friendly(ier)
Most – friendly(est)

The form of modifiers change as they are used in comparison. A comparison has three degrees:

1. Positive (pretty, kind, fearful, beautiful).
2. Comparative (prettier, kinder, more fearful, more beautiful).
3. Superlative (prettiest, kindest, most fearful, most beautiful).

Remember, adverbs always form their comparative and superlative degrees by using more or most.

a) David is less stupid than Jack.
b) David is the less stupid of them all.

Some modifiers have irregular comparison:

Bad, worse, worst.
Good, better, best.
Many, more, most.
Little, lesser, least.

Note – Do Not Omit the words “other” and “also” when comparing one thing with another.

a) He is smaller than anyone else.
b) He is more stupid than any person at work.

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Adjectives of modifiers – adjectives can shine the degree or extend one noun. It has a quality by comparing it with another noun that has the same quality.

a) This girl is prettier than that girl.
b) The country road is rougher than the state road.

Adverbs in a comparison.

a) Although that man thinks quickly, the other man thinks more quickly.

b) Mr. Jones is a man who likes young people (who likes young people – predicate nominative or subject).

c) Mr. Jones is a man whom young people like (whom young people like – predicate nominative or subject).

d) The girl who spoke to me has just won a scholarship (who spoke to me – subject).

e) The girl whom I spoke to has just won a scholarship (whom I spoke to – object of preposition).

Dangling Modifiers

To correct a dangling modifier, rearrange words in the sentence, or add words to the sentence.

a) While walking on the ceiling, I saw a fly.

b) While I was walking, I saw a fly on the ceiling.

c) When shaving mother often call dad.

d) When shaving dad was called by mother.

Note – Always put phrases and clause modifiers as close as possible to the word they modify.

aa) At the age of four dad gave me a black eye – Wrong.

bb) John enjoyed the chunks of meat slipped to him by guests – Wrong.

cc) The dress is hanging on the clothes line That I have sewed for week – Right.

dd) There was a flag on the stage which had only 48 stars – Right.

More Correct Examples

1. My grandmother bought me a pony at five years of age.
2. I could not find the fruit juice on the bottom shelf of the refrigerator.
3. In your post office box there should be a letter written by Sue.
4. I sent a sympathy card to the relatives of the dead man in a hurry.
5. The job was selling boxes of candy to children with prizes in them.
6. We felt very sorry for the little bulldog in a tiny cage at the dog pound.
7. From the forty yard line I saw him make a thrilling touch down.
8. The streets seemed slippery on the way to the grocery store.

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who is used as 1) as a subject, and 2) as a predicate nominative.

a) Who called today?
b) Who gave you the ticket?

Usage

In speech, whom is not used often, therefore, one could say, “It was he to who you spoke.”

In writing, however, one still observes the distinction between “who” or “whom, thus, in prose one would write, “It was he to whom you spoke.” The use of who or whom in a subordinate clause is determined by the pronoun’s function in the clause. Whom is used as the object of the preposition or object of the verb.

a) To whom are you speaking? (of the prep. to)
b) He is the person whom you hit. (whom is the object of the verb hit)

Note – Who + a subject = predicate noun.

a) I don’t know who that is.

Note – Who + a verb = subject.

a) I don’t know who gave you the black eye.
b) Whom did you speak to?
c) Whom did you thank?
d) You did thank whom?
e) Whom have you blessed with your prophecy?

When “who” is used as a predicate nominative, you must have a form of the verb “to be” before “who” can be used. Who must mean the same thing as the word to which it refers.

a) I don’t know who that is…
b) I don’t know who is…

Note – I and Me incomplete construction if one completed the sentence.

a) He likes John more than me.
b) He likes John more than I.

Abstract - “Mr. Stuffy was a fat man.”
Specific - “Mr. Stuffy weighed 400 pounds.”
Concrete - “Mr. Stuffy squeezed into the small car.”

Avoid double comparison when all possible.

More - Kinder (er, est)
Most - Beautiful (est)
Most - Kind
Most - Kinder

Note - Make sure your comparisons are clear and not obvious having double meaning.

a) She likes him more than Eliza.
b) She likes him more than she likes Eliza.

Positive – small
Comparative – smaller
Superlative – smallest

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1. Direct object.
2. Object of the preposition.
3. Indirect object.

a) I don’t object – answers the question what? After an active verb (she swam the channel), (he gave it to him).

Indirect object tells to whom, or for whom something is done. Remember, you must have a direct object before you can have an indirect object.

a) She gave ‘to’ him the cake.
b) He bought ‘for’ her the present.

Object of the preposition or prepositional phrase consists of two things; a preposition and its object.

a) He gave the purse to her.
b. The book was written by him.
c. It was given to her for him.

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Principle parts are:

1. Present participant which always end with “ing.”

2. Past tense which express completed action in the past.

3. Past participle use in the perfect tense with a helping verb “had gone.”

4. Infinitive used with “to” (to live, to pass, to conquer)

Regular verb

1. Form their past and present participle aims by adding “d” or “ed” to the infinitive (chose, chosed), (pass, passed).

Remember, that the plural “e” of the infinitive is sometimes dropped when writing the present participle “to use” infinitive “using” present participle.

Note – The past participle or past endings “d” or “ed” firms up past particples or past tenses.

a) Incorrect – “I ask him the question.”
b) Correct – “I asked him the question.”

Irregular verb

These firm up past participles by changing the vowel on the consanant by adding “en.” If in doubt about the past perticiple or past, firms are irregular verbs, then consult the dictionary which lists the past and past participles of the irregular verbs.

Remember, the past participle, when used as a part of the main verb, always use the verb to be as a helper.

The past participles, when used as a part of the main verb, always use “have,” “has,” “had,” or a firm of “to be” as a helper.

Lie and Lay

Lie means to recline and does not take a direct object. Principle part are: lie, lay, lain, lying, (he lies down).

Lay means to place or put and it does take a direct object. Principle parts are: lay, laid, laying, laid, (lay that book on the table).

Rise and Raise

Rise means to go up its accord and it doesn’t need help. Rise in transitive. It does not take a direct object. For example, “the sun rises,” “the smoke rose.” Principle parts are: rise, rose, risen, rising.

Raise means to lift and it does need help. For example, “I raised the blind.” Principle parts are: raise, raised, raising.

Sit and Sat

Sit means to be in a sitting position. Principle part are: sit down, I sat down, sit, sat, sitting.

Sat means to place. Set does take a direct object. For example, “set that down,” “I set the table.” Principle parts are set and setting.

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1. Subjects joined by “and” take a plural verb.

a) Paul and Jim both like football.
b) Ken and Paul play football well.

2. Singular subjects joined by “or” or “nor” take a singular verb.

a) Neither John nor I work(s) well together.
b) John or Sue read(s) well.

3. When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by “or” or “nor,” the verb agrees with the closer subject.

a) Neither John nor his friends care about football.
b) Neither his or John care.

4. Don’t and doesn’t agree with their subjects.

a) I (do, don’t), you (do, don’t), he (does, doesn’t), they (do, don’t).

5. Collective nouns can be singular or plural as determined by their meaning.

a) Jury, herd, team, audience, family.

b) When considered as a unit, the subject is singular. When considered as individuals, the subject is plural.

aa) The jury has reached a decision.
bb) The jury are arguing among themselves.
cc) The team plays well together.
dd) The team loves to argue with each other.

6. A verb agrees with the subject, not its predicate nominative.

a) Traffic jams are one problem of commuters.
b) One problem of commuters is traffic jams.

7. When the subject allows the verb “often,” “here,” “there,” or “after” questions, the verb agrees with its subject that allows the verb.

a) Here are the boys.
b) Here is the girl.
c) Where is Sheri.
d) Where are Sheri and John.
e) There are the plates.
f) There is the police.

8. Words stating amount are usually singular.

a) Ten dollars is a high price.
b) Two thirds of the cake was eaten.

9. The title of a word of art, literature, or music plural in form take a singular verb.

a) Great expectation is my favorite book.
b) Porky and Bess is my favorite operas.
c) Every or many before the subject takes a singular verb.
d) Many a worker (at general motors) is ill prepared in the current economy.
e) Every member of the squad is physically ready.

10. A few nouns, although plural in form take a singular verb.

a) Views, news.
b) Diseases, such as measles, chicken pox, mumps, rickets.
c) Words ending in “ics” ie; mathematics, physics, civics, economics,
politics, ethics, athletics.

11. Words indicating “time,” “money,”  “amount,” “measure,” “weight,” “volume,” or “fractions,” are usually considered singular and singular verb.

12. “It,” used as an introductory word is always followed by a singular. Remember, that the word “it” is not the subject in such a sentence.

13. When the word “there” introduces a sentence, the subject may be either singular or plural.

14. The words “several,” “few,” “both,” and “many,” are always plural and take a plural verb.

15. When the word “every” precedes the subject, it is used as an adjective, not as a pronoun. The subject takes a plural verb.

16. Remember that the antecedent of a pronoun names the person or thing to which the pronoun refers. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number and gender.

Singular Pronouns – I, you, he, she, it, my, mine, your, yours, his, hers, me, him.

Plural Pronouns - We, you, they, our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs, us, them.

Note – There are four genders: masculine, feminine, common, and neutral. The pronoun must be the same.

17. Tense denotes the time and action took place.

a) Present tense (I fly, I run)
b) Past tense (I flew, I ran)
c) Future tense (I will fly, I will run)

18. Present perfect denotes habitual action.

a) I have flown, He has flown.

19. Past perfect denotes an action that was completed before another past action.

a) I had flown.

20. Future perfect (I will have flown, I shall have studied for ten minutes when you arrive).

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